Problems along the Frontiers
by Unice Yoo
Han China and the Xiongnu
The Xiongnu were a constant threat to China during the Han dynasty. The Xiongnu are first mentioned in writings in the 5th century B.C.E., when the invasions led to the construction of the Great Wall to keep them out. However, the wall did not stop the invasions but only slowed them down. The real threat emerged when the Xiongnu formed a large confederation led by that chanyu, who was like the tianzi (Mandate of Heaven). They had a fierce cavalry, armed with bows and arrows, with numbers up to 300,000. Their horses easily outmaneuvered the Chinese chariots. The Chinese tried to control the nomadic invaders through marriage, but they continued the invasions until emperor Wudi implemented a policy against them. He sent expeditions into China to outflank them and become allies with their enemies. The presence of the Xiongnu pushed the Chinese to explore and conquer much territory in Central Asia.
The Han-Xiongnu war, also known as the Sino-Xiongnu war, occurred from 133 B.C.E-13 C.E. Under the command of Wudi, China adapted an aggressive foreign policy to handle the Xiongnu invasions. The war began when China planned to attack the Xiongnu at Mayi. Wudi dispatched many military campaigns in the Ordos Loop, Hexi Corridor, and Gobi Desert in order to extinguish the Xiongnu threat. These expeditions spread into the smaller states in the Western Regions. Regional alliances shifted depending on the changing balance of power between Han China and the Xiongnu. Over time, Chinese influence expanded into Central Asia and the Xiongnu power declined. Many civil wars and internal conflicts within the Xiongnu weakened the confederation, and the Southern Xiongnu fell to the Han. By 89 C.E., the Han had completely dominated the Xiongnu confederation.
The Han-Xiongnu war, also known as the Sino-Xiongnu war, occurred from 133 B.C.E-13 C.E. Under the command of Wudi, China adapted an aggressive foreign policy to handle the Xiongnu invasions. The war began when China planned to attack the Xiongnu at Mayi. Wudi dispatched many military campaigns in the Ordos Loop, Hexi Corridor, and Gobi Desert in order to extinguish the Xiongnu threat. These expeditions spread into the smaller states in the Western Regions. Regional alliances shifted depending on the changing balance of power between Han China and the Xiongnu. Over time, Chinese influence expanded into Central Asia and the Xiongnu power declined. Many civil wars and internal conflicts within the Xiongnu weakened the confederation, and the Southern Xiongnu fell to the Han. By 89 C.E., the Han had completely dominated the Xiongnu confederation.
Gupta and the White Huns (also Hunas, Hephthalites/Ephthalites)
The White Huns, known as the Hunas by the Gupta, invaded India in the fifth century C.E. They invaded from the Kabul valley and made their way across along the Ganges river. After such a long period of peace, the Gupta were not prepared or readily equipped to fight the Hunas. The capital of the Gupta empire, Pataliputra, was destroyed. So few of the population was remaining that it went from being a center city to a village. As the Hunas conquered India and gradually destroyed the Gupta, they persecuted Buddhists and their monasteries. By 520 C.E., the empire was reduced to a small fraction of what it once and was forced to pay tribute to the Hunas until it collapsed completely during the middle of the sixth century.
During the first invasion, the Hunas under Toramana were pushed back by the Gupta under Skandagupta. However, this defeat did not deter them from further invasions. They rebounded, but the Gupta could not withhold them this time. Toramana and the Hunas invaded through mountain passes in the Hindu Kush and conquered Punjab, Rajputana, Malwa, Kashmir, and parts of Doab. He established a base in Punjab and directed all further invasions into India from there. In 510-511, the Hunas suffered a crushing blow from Bhanu Gupta and Gopalachandra and retreated to the other side of India.
Toramana's son Mihirakula succeeded his rule. Like his father, he persecuted Buddhism and destroyed its monasteries. From Punjab, he attempted to reconquer Rajputana and Malwa. The Hunas were defeated by the Gupta forces led by Yasodharmana. After his death, Mihirakula seized the opportunity to invade India again. However, he was defeated by Narasimhagupta Baladitya and the Gupta. This defeat convinced Mihirakula to concentrate his efforts on ruling Punjab.
These incursions into India greatly affected the Gupta empire. They led to the decline of the empire, for while the Gupta dynasty was preoccupied with keeping out the Hunas, their semi-independent feudatories began breaking off into small kingdoms, destroying the political unity created by the early Gupta rulers. The Hunas interfered with Gupta trade, wreaking havoc on the economy. In addition to the collapse of the Gupta empire, the Huna invasions created a new racial mixture. They adopted Indian culture and Hinduism, but also brought with them their warlike culture. Thus, there was a transformation in India.
During the first invasion, the Hunas under Toramana were pushed back by the Gupta under Skandagupta. However, this defeat did not deter them from further invasions. They rebounded, but the Gupta could not withhold them this time. Toramana and the Hunas invaded through mountain passes in the Hindu Kush and conquered Punjab, Rajputana, Malwa, Kashmir, and parts of Doab. He established a base in Punjab and directed all further invasions into India from there. In 510-511, the Hunas suffered a crushing blow from Bhanu Gupta and Gopalachandra and retreated to the other side of India.
Toramana's son Mihirakula succeeded his rule. Like his father, he persecuted Buddhism and destroyed its monasteries. From Punjab, he attempted to reconquer Rajputana and Malwa. The Hunas were defeated by the Gupta forces led by Yasodharmana. After his death, Mihirakula seized the opportunity to invade India again. However, he was defeated by Narasimhagupta Baladitya and the Gupta. This defeat convinced Mihirakula to concentrate his efforts on ruling Punjab.
These incursions into India greatly affected the Gupta empire. They led to the decline of the empire, for while the Gupta dynasty was preoccupied with keeping out the Hunas, their semi-independent feudatories began breaking off into small kingdoms, destroying the political unity created by the early Gupta rulers. The Hunas interfered with Gupta trade, wreaking havoc on the economy. In addition to the collapse of the Gupta empire, the Huna invasions created a new racial mixture. They adopted Indian culture and Hinduism, but also brought with them their warlike culture. Thus, there was a transformation in India.
Romans and their Northern and Eastern Neighbors
The Roman Empire faced many enemies, including the Parthian and Sassanid Persian empires, the Germanic tribes (Goths, Vandals, Lombards, Franks, etc.), and the Huns. The invasions led to the collapse of the weakening empire.
The Roman-Persian wars occurred over a period of 700 years, beginning in the late Roman Republic and continuing even after the fall of Rome, with the Byzantine empire. These occurred between the Romans and Parthians until the Parthian empire was replaced by the Sassanid. They consisted of many battles separated by periods of peace. The empires fought over territory during the earlier wars, but the borders mostly stayed the same. However, in later years, religion also became reason for these conflicts, with Christianity in the West and Zoroastrianism in the East. These wars so weakened the Byzantine and Sassanid empires that they were easily conquered by the Muslim conquest.
The Romans first clashed with the Parthians from 53 B.C.E-226 C.E. The first of these wars were called the Mithridatic Wars, which took place from 82-63 B.C.E. The Romans' desire to conquer more territory drove the war. By the third war, Mithidrates and Tigranes had retreated deep into Armenia, and the Romans had taken most of Armenia, including Judea and Syria. This closed the gap between the Romans and the Parthian empire. After the wealth and land of Parthia, Crassus attempted to conquer it in Mesopotamia. However, he largely failed and a great massacre occurred at Carrhae in 53 B.C.E. Mark Antony also led a campaign in northern Parthia, but he did not accomplish much and lost many men on the return voyage. Octavius made peace with Parthia until Nero's reign in 62 C.E. Nero attempted the reconquest of Armenia, but his campaign did not yield any significant results. In 107 C.E., Rome finally penetrated the Parthian empire and captured its capital at Ctesiphon. The Roman victory greatly weakened it, paving the way for the rise of the Sassanid empire.
The Romans faced conflicts with the Sassanid empire from 226-321 C.E. While Rome was preoccupied with internal conflicts and disunity, the Sassanid empire under Shapur I worked to restore the Persian empire. After a long period of confusion within the Roman empire, emperor Valerian launched an offensive into the Sassanid empire. At the Battle of Edessa in 260, Valerian was defeated and captured by Shapur I. The capture threw Rome into further confusion, but the ruler of Palmyra reconquered much territory from 260-263, including Carrhae, Nisibis, Edessa, and Armenia. When he was killed, his wife Zenobia resumed the campaigns and conquered Syria and Egypt.
The Roman empire was divided into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire under Diocletian. The Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire) was a strongly Christian kingdom under Constantine. In the Sassanid Empire, Shapur II ruled a Zoroastrian state. He persecuted Christians, adding a religious aspect to the territorial wars. Shapur II aggressively fought against Rome from 337-363 C.E. The balance of power shifted in his advantage in 358, when he succeeded in conquering much territory. Emperor Julian was killed in Ctesiphon, and his successor disgracefully conceded five Roman provinces to the Sassanid empire.
The Roman-Persian wars occurred over a period of 700 years, beginning in the late Roman Republic and continuing even after the fall of Rome, with the Byzantine empire. These occurred between the Romans and Parthians until the Parthian empire was replaced by the Sassanid. They consisted of many battles separated by periods of peace. The empires fought over territory during the earlier wars, but the borders mostly stayed the same. However, in later years, religion also became reason for these conflicts, with Christianity in the West and Zoroastrianism in the East. These wars so weakened the Byzantine and Sassanid empires that they were easily conquered by the Muslim conquest.
The Romans first clashed with the Parthians from 53 B.C.E-226 C.E. The first of these wars were called the Mithridatic Wars, which took place from 82-63 B.C.E. The Romans' desire to conquer more territory drove the war. By the third war, Mithidrates and Tigranes had retreated deep into Armenia, and the Romans had taken most of Armenia, including Judea and Syria. This closed the gap between the Romans and the Parthian empire. After the wealth and land of Parthia, Crassus attempted to conquer it in Mesopotamia. However, he largely failed and a great massacre occurred at Carrhae in 53 B.C.E. Mark Antony also led a campaign in northern Parthia, but he did not accomplish much and lost many men on the return voyage. Octavius made peace with Parthia until Nero's reign in 62 C.E. Nero attempted the reconquest of Armenia, but his campaign did not yield any significant results. In 107 C.E., Rome finally penetrated the Parthian empire and captured its capital at Ctesiphon. The Roman victory greatly weakened it, paving the way for the rise of the Sassanid empire.
The Romans faced conflicts with the Sassanid empire from 226-321 C.E. While Rome was preoccupied with internal conflicts and disunity, the Sassanid empire under Shapur I worked to restore the Persian empire. After a long period of confusion within the Roman empire, emperor Valerian launched an offensive into the Sassanid empire. At the Battle of Edessa in 260, Valerian was defeated and captured by Shapur I. The capture threw Rome into further confusion, but the ruler of Palmyra reconquered much territory from 260-263, including Carrhae, Nisibis, Edessa, and Armenia. When he was killed, his wife Zenobia resumed the campaigns and conquered Syria and Egypt.
The Roman empire was divided into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire under Diocletian. The Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire) was a strongly Christian kingdom under Constantine. In the Sassanid Empire, Shapur II ruled a Zoroastrian state. He persecuted Christians, adding a religious aspect to the territorial wars. Shapur II aggressively fought against Rome from 337-363 C.E. The balance of power shifted in his advantage in 358, when he succeeded in conquering much territory. Emperor Julian was killed in Ctesiphon, and his successor disgracefully conceded five Roman provinces to the Sassanid empire.
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