Literature and Drama
by Unice Yoo
Greek plays
Aeschylus was one of the three great Greek tragedians. He wrote many plays, including Oresteia (a trilogy consisting of the plays Agamemnon, The Choephori, and Eumenides), The Persians, The Suppliants, Prometheus Bound, and The Seven Against Thebes. To read some of these works, click here. For more information on these works, click here.
Aeschylus revolutionized Greek drama. He added a second actor (called the deuteragonist) to the previous single protagonist and chorus. By adding another actor to the stage, the play could incorporate more dramatic tension, variety, freedom, dialogue, and complexity in the plot. It is believed that Aeschylus was responsible for making the protagonist the most important actor and diminishing the importance of the role of the chorus. In addition to introducing a new actor to the play, he also showed adept abilities in setting up the stage and using machinery to produce scenic effects. He began designing costumes for the actors as well as training the actors and chorus for their performances. He most likely was an actor in most of his plays, which was common among Greek dramatists at that time.
The new ideas he brought to the performance and stage are not the only great achievements made by Aeschylus; he also created great plays that are still extant and praised today in a high standing in literature. They are known for their lyrical language, the complex plots, and the universal themes. The dialogue and choral lyrics are powerful, majestic, and full of emotion. Aeschylus used many epithets, metaphors, and other types of figurative language, but these literary devices were used to portray the action and plot of the play rather than for ornate, decorative language. He also kept an image or images throughout a whole play, such as the snare in Agamemnon. These images often came in the form of motifs that were connected with a specific word or words. This technique allowed Aeschylus to turn drama into a more artistic and intellectual experience.
Aeschylus' tragedies are often about the predicaments and dilemmas faced by the characters, whose fates are often intertwined with the fates of the community. His plays dealt with personal, social, and religious issues during his time. Aeschylus predominantly aimed to elucidate the concepts of divine justice. He believed that the gods were jealous of any great humans and created flaws in the humans in order to bring them to their own destruction. One flaw commonly possessed by many heroes was hubris, or excessive pride. This pride would lead to the hero's downfall and simultaneously make it appear as though the fall was justified. Sometimes, however, if the perpetrator goes unpunished, the punishment is transferred to the hero's family. Aeschylus also believed that the gods performed their duties vicariously through human actions, primarily urged by the desire for vengeance.
Although Aeschylus emphasizes balance and retaliation, his plays often ended with reconciliation rather than the perpetuation of violence and blood feuds. Because he lived during a period in Greece when the gods were still very close to the people, he could think logically and generally. This enabled him to judge good and evil sincerely and honestly.
Aeschylus revolutionized Greek drama. He added a second actor (called the deuteragonist) to the previous single protagonist and chorus. By adding another actor to the stage, the play could incorporate more dramatic tension, variety, freedom, dialogue, and complexity in the plot. It is believed that Aeschylus was responsible for making the protagonist the most important actor and diminishing the importance of the role of the chorus. In addition to introducing a new actor to the play, he also showed adept abilities in setting up the stage and using machinery to produce scenic effects. He began designing costumes for the actors as well as training the actors and chorus for their performances. He most likely was an actor in most of his plays, which was common among Greek dramatists at that time.
The new ideas he brought to the performance and stage are not the only great achievements made by Aeschylus; he also created great plays that are still extant and praised today in a high standing in literature. They are known for their lyrical language, the complex plots, and the universal themes. The dialogue and choral lyrics are powerful, majestic, and full of emotion. Aeschylus used many epithets, metaphors, and other types of figurative language, but these literary devices were used to portray the action and plot of the play rather than for ornate, decorative language. He also kept an image or images throughout a whole play, such as the snare in Agamemnon. These images often came in the form of motifs that were connected with a specific word or words. This technique allowed Aeschylus to turn drama into a more artistic and intellectual experience.
Aeschylus' tragedies are often about the predicaments and dilemmas faced by the characters, whose fates are often intertwined with the fates of the community. His plays dealt with personal, social, and religious issues during his time. Aeschylus predominantly aimed to elucidate the concepts of divine justice. He believed that the gods were jealous of any great humans and created flaws in the humans in order to bring them to their own destruction. One flaw commonly possessed by many heroes was hubris, or excessive pride. This pride would lead to the hero's downfall and simultaneously make it appear as though the fall was justified. Sometimes, however, if the perpetrator goes unpunished, the punishment is transferred to the hero's family. Aeschylus also believed that the gods performed their duties vicariously through human actions, primarily urged by the desire for vengeance.
Although Aeschylus emphasizes balance and retaliation, his plays often ended with reconciliation rather than the perpetuation of violence and blood feuds. Because he lived during a period in Greece when the gods were still very close to the people, he could think logically and generally. This enabled him to judge good and evil sincerely and honestly.
Sophocles was one of the three great Greek tragedians. He wrote many plays, including Ajax, Antigone, Electra, Oedipus at Colonus, Oedipus the King, Philoctetes, The Trachiniae, and Trackers. To read some of these works, click here. For more information on these works, click here.
Sophocles made many valuable contributions to literature and drama. He made many dramatic innovations, including a technique called "scene painting" which consisted of using props to create the proper setting; he also added three more performers in the chorus, increasing the original 12 members to 15. His most significant contribution to drama could arguably be the addition of a third actor; before him, only two actors played multiple roles. The addition of the third actor allowed for more interaction between different characters and as a result, a more complicated plot.
Sophocles did not incorporate many characters into his plays. The characters usually possessed great determination and power. Their traits intertwined with the circumstances presented in the plot led to the tragic endings. Some prevalent themes in his plays included wisdom and imprudence or madness. The protagonist typically makes a critical mistake which determines the ensuing events and often has adverse effects on supporting characters, which are often present or contemporaries at the time of the critical mistake. The reaction of the other characters' to the initial grave mistake goes back around and causes the protagonist to make another error that brings the characters closer to the tragic fate that awaits.
Sophocles adjusted his style of writing as necessary throughout his works. He was eclectic and resilient; his words could plod and trudge or be light and brief; convey powerful emotions or remain light and carefree; or be grandiloquent or plain and simple. He was revered for his brilliant depictions of his characters, his ability to create strong dramatic tensions, and his use of tragic irony.
Sophocles' work in part could have been influenced by his religious views. He regarded the Greek gods as divine personified representations of the forces in nature, to which all mortals were inferior. He thus chose to write about humans and human struggles. In his plays, tragic flaws and mistakes are made due to ignorance. This ignorance is partly derived from the characters' seclusion from these forces of nature. However, the tragedy, pain, anguish, and hardships faced by the characters are what unite them with the world. As a result, the characters can become more humanized and realistic.
Sophocles made many valuable contributions to literature and drama. He made many dramatic innovations, including a technique called "scene painting" which consisted of using props to create the proper setting; he also added three more performers in the chorus, increasing the original 12 members to 15. His most significant contribution to drama could arguably be the addition of a third actor; before him, only two actors played multiple roles. The addition of the third actor allowed for more interaction between different characters and as a result, a more complicated plot.
Sophocles did not incorporate many characters into his plays. The characters usually possessed great determination and power. Their traits intertwined with the circumstances presented in the plot led to the tragic endings. Some prevalent themes in his plays included wisdom and imprudence or madness. The protagonist typically makes a critical mistake which determines the ensuing events and often has adverse effects on supporting characters, which are often present or contemporaries at the time of the critical mistake. The reaction of the other characters' to the initial grave mistake goes back around and causes the protagonist to make another error that brings the characters closer to the tragic fate that awaits.
Sophocles adjusted his style of writing as necessary throughout his works. He was eclectic and resilient; his words could plod and trudge or be light and brief; convey powerful emotions or remain light and carefree; or be grandiloquent or plain and simple. He was revered for his brilliant depictions of his characters, his ability to create strong dramatic tensions, and his use of tragic irony.
Sophocles' work in part could have been influenced by his religious views. He regarded the Greek gods as divine personified representations of the forces in nature, to which all mortals were inferior. He thus chose to write about humans and human struggles. In his plays, tragic flaws and mistakes are made due to ignorance. This ignorance is partly derived from the characters' seclusion from these forces of nature. However, the tragedy, pain, anguish, and hardships faced by the characters are what unite them with the world. As a result, the characters can become more humanized and realistic.
Euripides was one of the three great Greek tragedians. Among his works were Alcestis, Andromache, The Bacchantes, The Cyclops, Electra, Hecuba, Helen, Phoenician Women, The Heracleidae, Heracles, Hippolytus, Ion, The Suppliants, Iphigenia at Aulis, Iphigenia in Tauris, Medea, and Orestes. To read some of these works, click here. For more information on these works, click here.
Euripides held heretic beliefs toward tradition Greek mythology. He thought rationally. To him, they were just an anthology of stories without any authority. He often characterized the gods of the Greek pantheon as irrational and indifferent to the deliverance of justice. Although he did not believe in the gods, he often used them in his plays because they were so popularly known that they provided a convenient channel for relaying information to the audience.
The protagonists of Euripides' plays are very different from the characters in Aeschylus or Sophocles' works. Instead of being unrealistic, mighty heroes, they are typically average people who possess the normal qualities, flaws and strengths, that ordinary humans possess. Euripides also uses his heroes to present and discuss the current ideas circulating during his time. He would even stop his dramas to interject a debate on a common controversy or idea of his time. Unlike those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, the downfalls of the characters in Euripides' plays are caused by their own flaws. Fate, chaos, irrationality, and corruption usually end in suffering that the gods ignore. The advantage to this portrayal is the ability to create such appalling situations and the astounding emotional effects that result from the characters' tragic fates.
Regarding the structure of his plays, Euripides was unique in that he incorporated prologues and the appearance of a deity at the end of his plays. They began with a monologue to explain the background of the story, and the epilogue made by the deity at the end was used to tell what became of the characters in the play after the ending. Euripides also gradually reduced the role of the chorus so that it even became separated from the drama of the play.
Euripides' style of speech was known as "lalia", or chatter. It was light and fluid, regardless of the classes of the characters. During his later works, his style shifted and became more emotional and elaborate. This ornate style of writing allowed his writing to be unparalleled in moments of feverish emotions.
During his last years, Euripides began writing romantic dramas, also called tragecomedies. These works had happy endings, a noticeable difference from his earlier works. The structure of these tragecomedies was highly organized, in which a character discovers his or her true self and the circumstances change, usually for the better.
Euripides' works found more favor among audiences. Compared to Aeschylus and Sophocles, his characters could more easily relate to the audience and with real people, creating intense emotional effects.
Euripides held heretic beliefs toward tradition Greek mythology. He thought rationally. To him, they were just an anthology of stories without any authority. He often characterized the gods of the Greek pantheon as irrational and indifferent to the deliverance of justice. Although he did not believe in the gods, he often used them in his plays because they were so popularly known that they provided a convenient channel for relaying information to the audience.
The protagonists of Euripides' plays are very different from the characters in Aeschylus or Sophocles' works. Instead of being unrealistic, mighty heroes, they are typically average people who possess the normal qualities, flaws and strengths, that ordinary humans possess. Euripides also uses his heroes to present and discuss the current ideas circulating during his time. He would even stop his dramas to interject a debate on a common controversy or idea of his time. Unlike those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, the downfalls of the characters in Euripides' plays are caused by their own flaws. Fate, chaos, irrationality, and corruption usually end in suffering that the gods ignore. The advantage to this portrayal is the ability to create such appalling situations and the astounding emotional effects that result from the characters' tragic fates.
Regarding the structure of his plays, Euripides was unique in that he incorporated prologues and the appearance of a deity at the end of his plays. They began with a monologue to explain the background of the story, and the epilogue made by the deity at the end was used to tell what became of the characters in the play after the ending. Euripides also gradually reduced the role of the chorus so that it even became separated from the drama of the play.
Euripides' style of speech was known as "lalia", or chatter. It was light and fluid, regardless of the classes of the characters. During his later works, his style shifted and became more emotional and elaborate. This ornate style of writing allowed his writing to be unparalleled in moments of feverish emotions.
During his last years, Euripides began writing romantic dramas, also called tragecomedies. These works had happy endings, a noticeable difference from his earlier works. The structure of these tragecomedies was highly organized, in which a character discovers his or her true self and the circumstances change, usually for the better.
Euripides' works found more favor among audiences. Compared to Aeschylus and Sophocles, his characters could more easily relate to the audience and with real people, creating intense emotional effects.
Aristophanes, unlike the three dramatists, wrote comedy. His works include The Acharnians, The Birds, The Clouds, The Ecclesiazusae, The Frogs, Lysistrata, The Babylonians, The Knights, The Wasps, The Thesmophoriazusae, Peace, and Plutus. To read some of these works, click here.
Aristophanes is the only playwright whose works still exist from the Old Comedy period. Although his plays were not tightly put together, were filled with irrelevant digressions, and branched out into disjointed subjects toward the end, Aristophanes made good use of puns, wit, and allusions. He was lauded for his witty dialogue, his usually buoyant but sometimes sinister satire, his excellent parodies in which he mocked Euripides, his brilliant inventiveness, his whimsically ridiculous scenes derived from pure imagination, his chorus songs which can be translated into other languages and retain their charm, his lewd bluntness, and his many allusions.
Aristophanes is the only playwright whose works still exist from the Old Comedy period. Although his plays were not tightly put together, were filled with irrelevant digressions, and branched out into disjointed subjects toward the end, Aristophanes made good use of puns, wit, and allusions. He was lauded for his witty dialogue, his usually buoyant but sometimes sinister satire, his excellent parodies in which he mocked Euripides, his brilliant inventiveness, his whimsically ridiculous scenes derived from pure imagination, his chorus songs which can be translated into other languages and retain their charm, his lewd bluntness, and his many allusions.
Indian epics
The Ramayana was one of the two great Indian epics. This epic was written in Sanskrit and consists of 24,000 couplets divided among seven books. This work details the heroic feats of Rama.
Rama was born in Ayodhya. His mentor throughout his early development was Vishvamitra. He marries Princess Sita when he wins the contest for her hand by succeeding in bending Shiva's bow. Rama is exiled by his stepmother, who does not want him to inherit the throne. She instead persuades the king to grant her one wish, and that is to place her own son Bharata on the throne. Sita follows her husband into exile because as his wife, it is her dharma to stay with Rama. The couple moves to the forest where they live with Rama's favorite half-brother, Lakshmana, where they are to stay for fourteen years in exile. It is in their forest home that Ravana, the many-headed and many-armed demon of Lanka, kidnaps Sita while Rama and Lakshmana were distracted by a gold deer sent by Ravana to draw them away. When the brothers discover that Ravana has taken Sita, the set out to save her. Meanwhile, Sita rejects Ravana.
Rama and Lakshmana encounter many adventures on their ultimate quest. They finally meet Sugriva, the monkey king, and form an alliance. With the help of Hanuman, the general of the monkeys, and Vibhishana, Ravana's brother, Rama and Lakshmana launch an attack on Lanka. Rama finally kills Ravana and rescues Sita, but her fidelity to Rama is questioned. When they return triumphant to Ayodhya, the people of the kingdom still doubt Sita's faithfulness and Rama exiles her to the forest again. There, she encounters Valmiki and gives birth to Rama's sons at his home. When her sons come of age, they are reunited with Rama, but Sita, claiming her fidelity, is swallowed up by the earth.
The Ramayana illustrates the concept of dharma through Rama and his loyal supporters. He is considered to be a hero and an exemplary model because he follows his dharma. When Sita follows Rama into exile, she illustrates another example of the importance of following dharma. When Bharata offers to abdicate since it is the dharma of the eldest son to rule, he is following his dharma.
The Ramayana is widely celebrated in India. Reciting the poem is looked upon highly. In North India, the epic is reenacted every year in the Ram Lila. In South India, it is part of the repertoire for the kathakali dance-drama of Malabar. Its influence has reached throughout Southeast Asia, the heroes appearing in Javanese-Balinese theater, dance, and shadow plays as well as in carved bas-relief on many monuments in Indonesia. It is a unifying aspect of Indian culture that brings people together across castes, regional differences, and languages. Two holidays are even held commemorating this epic. The Dussehra is a festival that lasts for fourteen days in October that celebrates Rama's victory in Lanka and over Ravana. Divali is a festival in October and November that celebrates the return of Rama and Sita to Ayodhya.
Rama was born in Ayodhya. His mentor throughout his early development was Vishvamitra. He marries Princess Sita when he wins the contest for her hand by succeeding in bending Shiva's bow. Rama is exiled by his stepmother, who does not want him to inherit the throne. She instead persuades the king to grant her one wish, and that is to place her own son Bharata on the throne. Sita follows her husband into exile because as his wife, it is her dharma to stay with Rama. The couple moves to the forest where they live with Rama's favorite half-brother, Lakshmana, where they are to stay for fourteen years in exile. It is in their forest home that Ravana, the many-headed and many-armed demon of Lanka, kidnaps Sita while Rama and Lakshmana were distracted by a gold deer sent by Ravana to draw them away. When the brothers discover that Ravana has taken Sita, the set out to save her. Meanwhile, Sita rejects Ravana.
Rama and Lakshmana encounter many adventures on their ultimate quest. They finally meet Sugriva, the monkey king, and form an alliance. With the help of Hanuman, the general of the monkeys, and Vibhishana, Ravana's brother, Rama and Lakshmana launch an attack on Lanka. Rama finally kills Ravana and rescues Sita, but her fidelity to Rama is questioned. When they return triumphant to Ayodhya, the people of the kingdom still doubt Sita's faithfulness and Rama exiles her to the forest again. There, she encounters Valmiki and gives birth to Rama's sons at his home. When her sons come of age, they are reunited with Rama, but Sita, claiming her fidelity, is swallowed up by the earth.
The Ramayana illustrates the concept of dharma through Rama and his loyal supporters. He is considered to be a hero and an exemplary model because he follows his dharma. When Sita follows Rama into exile, she illustrates another example of the importance of following dharma. When Bharata offers to abdicate since it is the dharma of the eldest son to rule, he is following his dharma.
The Ramayana is widely celebrated in India. Reciting the poem is looked upon highly. In North India, the epic is reenacted every year in the Ram Lila. In South India, it is part of the repertoire for the kathakali dance-drama of Malabar. Its influence has reached throughout Southeast Asia, the heroes appearing in Javanese-Balinese theater, dance, and shadow plays as well as in carved bas-relief on many monuments in Indonesia. It is a unifying aspect of Indian culture that brings people together across castes, regional differences, and languages. Two holidays are even held commemorating this epic. The Dussehra is a festival that lasts for fourteen days in October that celebrates Rama's victory in Lanka and over Ravana. Divali is a festival in October and November that celebrates the return of Rama and Sita to Ayodhya.
The Mahabharata was one of the two great Indian epics. This epic was written in Sanskrit and illustrates the concept of dharma and gives an insight into the history of Hinduism. It consists of nearly 100,000 couplets divided into 18 parvans (sections).
The plot of this poem centers around the conflict between two families: the Kauravas (descendants of Kuru) and the Pandavas (descendants of Pandu). The two families are opposite factions of the same family. The blood feud began when Pandu was made king rather than Dhritarashtra after their father's death because Dhritarashtra was blind. Pandu, under a curse which will cause his death if he makes love, resigns the throne and calls on the gods to have children with his wives. With his first wife Kunti, Dharma has Yudhisthira, Wind has Bhima, and Indra has Arjuna. With his second wife Madri, the Ashvins have Nakula and Sahadeva. However, Pandu eventually cannot resist his desires and makes love to his wife, despite her warnings. He falls dead and as his wife, Madri's dharma is to join him in the fire. Meanwhile, Dhritarashtra has claimed the throne to Hastinapura. He marries Gandhari, who shares her husband's blindness by forever wearing a blindfold. She gives birth to a ball of flesh. She cuts up the ball into 100 pieces and placed them in jars of ghee, whereupon she became the mother of the 100 children who came to be known as the Kauravas.
The Pandavas and the Kauravas develop such an animosity that even leads to violence and murderous attempts. When Pandu dies, the Pandavas are exiled from the kingdom. Arjuna then wins the hand of Draupadi in an archery contest, but following their mother's advice, all five brothers marry Draupadi. During this time, they also meet Krishna, their cousin and a reincarnation of Vishnu. They return to their kingdom only to be exiled for another 12 years when Yudhisthira loses everything in a game of dice with Duryodhana, one of the Kauravas.
The tensions between the Kauravas and the Pandavas eventually breaks into a war. Against the odds and numbers, the five Pandavas and Krishna survive and the 100 Kauravas are slaughtered. After the Pandavas win their victory, they fall one by one. Krishna is killed by a hunter when he is mistaken for a deer and shot in his Achilles spot: his foot. At the end of the journey to Indra's heaven, only Yudhisthira is remaining. He is finally reunited with the other Pandavas, his wife, and the Kauravas, but this time in eternal paradise.
The plot of this poem centers around the conflict between two families: the Kauravas (descendants of Kuru) and the Pandavas (descendants of Pandu). The two families are opposite factions of the same family. The blood feud began when Pandu was made king rather than Dhritarashtra after their father's death because Dhritarashtra was blind. Pandu, under a curse which will cause his death if he makes love, resigns the throne and calls on the gods to have children with his wives. With his first wife Kunti, Dharma has Yudhisthira, Wind has Bhima, and Indra has Arjuna. With his second wife Madri, the Ashvins have Nakula and Sahadeva. However, Pandu eventually cannot resist his desires and makes love to his wife, despite her warnings. He falls dead and as his wife, Madri's dharma is to join him in the fire. Meanwhile, Dhritarashtra has claimed the throne to Hastinapura. He marries Gandhari, who shares her husband's blindness by forever wearing a blindfold. She gives birth to a ball of flesh. She cuts up the ball into 100 pieces and placed them in jars of ghee, whereupon she became the mother of the 100 children who came to be known as the Kauravas.
The Pandavas and the Kauravas develop such an animosity that even leads to violence and murderous attempts. When Pandu dies, the Pandavas are exiled from the kingdom. Arjuna then wins the hand of Draupadi in an archery contest, but following their mother's advice, all five brothers marry Draupadi. During this time, they also meet Krishna, their cousin and a reincarnation of Vishnu. They return to their kingdom only to be exiled for another 12 years when Yudhisthira loses everything in a game of dice with Duryodhana, one of the Kauravas.
The tensions between the Kauravas and the Pandavas eventually breaks into a war. Against the odds and numbers, the five Pandavas and Krishna survive and the 100 Kauravas are slaughtered. After the Pandavas win their victory, they fall one by one. Krishna is killed by a hunter when he is mistaken for a deer and shot in his Achilles spot: his foot. At the end of the journey to Indra's heaven, only Yudhisthira is remaining. He is finally reunited with the other Pandavas, his wife, and the Kauravas, but this time in eternal paradise.
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