Persian Empires
by Unice Yoo
Achaemenid (550-330 B.C.E.)
The Achaemenid Empire stretched from Anatolia (Turkey) and Egypt across western Asia to northern India and Central Asia. It was founded by Cyrus II (commonly known as Cyrus the Great) in 550 B.C.E., when he defeated King Astyages of Media and conquered Iran and Anatolia. This victory upset the balance of power in the region, and paved the way for the expansion of the Achaemenid Empire. The Lydians in western Anatolia jumped on the opportunity afforded by the fall of Media to expand east, but were met by the Persians. They retreated in the winter, but Persian forces laid siege on Sardis, the capital of Lydia. It fell after two weeks; but the Persians had to contend with its allies: the Babylonian Empire and the Egyptians. The Babylonians were defeated in 539 B.C.E. at Opis, giving the Persians control over Mesopotamia and the eastern Mediterranean. The only other major force left was Egypt. However, the conquest of Egypt occurred under the rule of Cyrus's son, Cambyses. After a ten-day siege on Memphis, it fell under Persian rule.
Darius I (Darius the Great) came to power after Cambyses died on the way back to the Persian court. Darius claimed that Achaemenes was his ancestor, hence the eponymous empire. He annexed northwestern India into the Persian empire. Under his rule, the empire was stabilized. He built a network of roads, established a system of governors called satraps, and launched two major construction projects: the royal buildings at Susa and the capital at Persepolis, in which the buildings were adorned with stone reliefs and carvings. These designs depict tributaries from throughout the empire converging toward the king or upholding his throne, symbolizing the stable empire, held up by the people. During Darius's reign, the first of the Greco-Persian wars occurred in 498 B.C.E., when the eastern Greek Ionian cities along with Athens revolted. Within four years, the revolution was put down, but the Persians were defeated at Marathon in 490 B.C.E.
Xerxes, Darius's son and successor, initiated many attacks against Greece in order to conquer it. However, Sparta and Athens fought back. In 480 B.C., Persian forces defeated the Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae and sacked Athens; but Greek forces defeated Xerxes's navy in the Battle of Salamis in 479 B.C.E. with their triremes. However, Xerxes abandoned his interest in Greece and left to suppress a rebellion in Babylon, leaving his forces behind to be defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of Plataea in 479 B.C.E. He was assassinated and his son, Artaxerxes I, replaced his father on the throne.
Much evidence documenting Persian history is derived from contemporary Greek and later classical writers, who mostly expounded on Greco-Persian relations and Persian tales of court intrigues, moral corruption, and extravagant luxury. They provide information that Artaxerxes I suppressed revolts in Egypt and established garrisons in the Levant. He was succeeded by Darius II. Under his reign, the empire remained stable and intact. However, under Artaxerxes II, Egypt claimed its independence from Persia. Though he ruled for the longest period, little is known about him, except that Plutarch described him as a kind ruler and brave warrior. He was replaced by Artaxerxes III, who reconquered Egypt. When he was assassinated, Artaxerxes IV ruled before he was also assassinated and succeeded by Darius III. Darius III faced Alexander the Great, but was assassinated by one of his own generals, allowing Alexander to conquer the Achaemenid Persian empire.
Darius I (Darius the Great) came to power after Cambyses died on the way back to the Persian court. Darius claimed that Achaemenes was his ancestor, hence the eponymous empire. He annexed northwestern India into the Persian empire. Under his rule, the empire was stabilized. He built a network of roads, established a system of governors called satraps, and launched two major construction projects: the royal buildings at Susa and the capital at Persepolis, in which the buildings were adorned with stone reliefs and carvings. These designs depict tributaries from throughout the empire converging toward the king or upholding his throne, symbolizing the stable empire, held up by the people. During Darius's reign, the first of the Greco-Persian wars occurred in 498 B.C.E., when the eastern Greek Ionian cities along with Athens revolted. Within four years, the revolution was put down, but the Persians were defeated at Marathon in 490 B.C.E.
Xerxes, Darius's son and successor, initiated many attacks against Greece in order to conquer it. However, Sparta and Athens fought back. In 480 B.C., Persian forces defeated the Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae and sacked Athens; but Greek forces defeated Xerxes's navy in the Battle of Salamis in 479 B.C.E. with their triremes. However, Xerxes abandoned his interest in Greece and left to suppress a rebellion in Babylon, leaving his forces behind to be defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of Plataea in 479 B.C.E. He was assassinated and his son, Artaxerxes I, replaced his father on the throne.
Much evidence documenting Persian history is derived from contemporary Greek and later classical writers, who mostly expounded on Greco-Persian relations and Persian tales of court intrigues, moral corruption, and extravagant luxury. They provide information that Artaxerxes I suppressed revolts in Egypt and established garrisons in the Levant. He was succeeded by Darius II. Under his reign, the empire remained stable and intact. However, under Artaxerxes II, Egypt claimed its independence from Persia. Though he ruled for the longest period, little is known about him, except that Plutarch described him as a kind ruler and brave warrior. He was replaced by Artaxerxes III, who reconquered Egypt. When he was assassinated, Artaxerxes IV ruled before he was also assassinated and succeeded by Darius III. Darius III faced Alexander the Great, but was assassinated by one of his own generals, allowing Alexander to conquer the Achaemenid Persian empire.
Parthian (247 B.C.E.-224 C.E.)
The Parthian Empire, also known as the Arsacid Empire (for Arsaces I) was form afted after the fall of the Seleucid dynasty. Before his death in 323 B.C.E., Alexander the Great had conquered the Achaemenid empire, which encompassed the land from the Mediterranean to India. Following his death, one of his generals, Seleucus I, ruled Syria, Mesopotamia, and Iran, beginning the Seleucid dynasty. It was during this period that the Hellenistic culture, a blend of classical Greek and Near East culture, flourished.
While the Seleucid army was preoccupied with the Ptolemies in Egypt, a semi-nomadic confederacy named the Parni invaded the frontier of the Seleucid satrapy of Parthia, located by the Caspian Sea. In 250 B.C.E., Arsaces led the Parni against the Seleucid and conquered the region. From there on, they were referred to as the Parthians. This victory led to the establishment of the Arsacid dynasty in 247 B.C.E., in which all rulers adopted the title Arsaces. Under the reign of Mithradates I and all of his successors, the Parthian empire grew as it gradually incorporated the Seleucids, the Romans, the Greco-Bactrians kingdoms, and the Central Asian nomads. The Romans had modeled their conquest after Alexander the Great but underestimated the Parthian forces. Peace was negotiated under the rule of Augustus.
The Parthian kings established the capital in Ctesiphon, where they ruled the expanse from Anatolia to northern India for nearly 500 years before they were defeated by the Sassanians.
While the Seleucid army was preoccupied with the Ptolemies in Egypt, a semi-nomadic confederacy named the Parni invaded the frontier of the Seleucid satrapy of Parthia, located by the Caspian Sea. In 250 B.C.E., Arsaces led the Parni against the Seleucid and conquered the region. From there on, they were referred to as the Parthians. This victory led to the establishment of the Arsacid dynasty in 247 B.C.E., in which all rulers adopted the title Arsaces. Under the reign of Mithradates I and all of his successors, the Parthian empire grew as it gradually incorporated the Seleucids, the Romans, the Greco-Bactrians kingdoms, and the Central Asian nomads. The Romans had modeled their conquest after Alexander the Great but underestimated the Parthian forces. Peace was negotiated under the rule of Augustus.
The Parthian kings established the capital in Ctesiphon, where they ruled the expanse from Anatolia to northern India for nearly 500 years before they were defeated by the Sassanians.
Sassanid (224-651 C.E.)
The Sassanid Empire was the last great Persian empire before the Arab conquests. This empire was established by Ardashir I, who named the empire after his ancestor Sasan. Around 224 C.E., Ardashir overthrew the Parthians. The Sasanians viewed themselves as the descendants of the Achaemenids. A notable ruler was Shapur I. Under his reign, the government was strengthened, new coins were produced, and the empire converted to Zoroastrianism. The expanding Sasanian empire clashed with Rome. In 260 C.E., Shapur captured emperor Valerian, leaving eastern Rome under the ruler of Palmyra, a caravan city in Syria. With his conquests, the Sassanid empire encompassed the region from the Euphrates River all the way to the Indus River, including what is now Armenia and Georgia. However, much of this territory was temporarily lost before it was regained by Shapur II. He gained control over the Kushans in the east and led campaigns against the Arabs in the desert. Sasanian forces once again clashed with Rome over the possession of Mesopotamia and Armenia. The Sasanians had to pay tribute to the Hephthalite Huns during the fifth century. These tribal movements in Central Asia had spelled disaster for the Sassanid empire, but it was restored and the Hephthalites defeated under Khosrow I. A large factor leading to the downfall of the empire, there were many conflicts and wars with the Byzantine empire. These weakened both sides and allowed the Sassanid to easily be overtaken by Islamic Arab forces. Yazdegerd III, the last ruler of the empire, died in 651.
Sources
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm
http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/images/achaemenid_empire_map.gif
http://www.humanrights.com/sites/default/files/cyrus-the-great.jpg
Darius, Apadana of. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-110182>.
Darius, Apadana of: tribute bearer relief. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-
111709>.
Xerxes Palace. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-153605>.
Darius I. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-164177>.
Xerxes I: bas-relief. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-15300>.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/part/hd_part.htm
Artabanus I: portrait coin. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web.24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-8573>.
Iran: Parthian Empire. Map/Still. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-2030>.
Hatra: ruins of the ancient city of Hatra, Parthian empire. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 1 Feb. 2014.
<http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-51510>.
http://www.livius.org/a/2/iran/coin_arsaces_s.JPG
http://www.livius.org/a/2/iran/coin_mithridates_i_1_bodemuseum_s.jpg
http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/time/explore/images/parthian.jpg
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/sass/hd_sass.htm
Ardashir I: portrait coin. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-8533>.
Iran: Sasanian Empire. Map/Still. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-2031>.
Shapur I: rock relief: surrender of Valerian. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 1 Feb. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-
1839>.
Ctesiphon: Taq Kisra. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 1 Feb. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-147394>.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/images/h2/h2_65.126.jpg
http://iranpoliticsclub.net/art-literature/faravahar2/images/Faravahar%20Ancient%20Persian%20Carving.jpg
http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/images/achaemenid_empire_map.gif
http://www.humanrights.com/sites/default/files/cyrus-the-great.jpg
Darius, Apadana of. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-110182>.
Darius, Apadana of: tribute bearer relief. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-
111709>.
Xerxes Palace. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-153605>.
Darius I. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-164177>.
Xerxes I: bas-relief. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-15300>.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/part/hd_part.htm
Artabanus I: portrait coin. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web.24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-8573>.
Iran: Parthian Empire. Map/Still. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-2030>.
Hatra: ruins of the ancient city of Hatra, Parthian empire. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 1 Feb. 2014.
<http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-51510>.
http://www.livius.org/a/2/iran/coin_arsaces_s.JPG
http://www.livius.org/a/2/iran/coin_mithridates_i_1_bodemuseum_s.jpg
http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/time/explore/images/parthian.jpg
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/sass/hd_sass.htm
Ardashir I: portrait coin. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-8533>.
Iran: Sasanian Empire. Map/Still. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 24 Jan. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-2031>.
Shapur I: rock relief: surrender of Valerian. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 1 Feb. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-
1839>.
Ctesiphon: Taq Kisra. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 1 Feb. 2014. <http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-147394>.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/images/h2/h2_65.126.jpg
http://iranpoliticsclub.net/art-literature/faravahar2/images/Faravahar%20Ancient%20Persian%20Carving.jpg