East Asia PERSIAN Chart
(Modern)
by Unice Yoo
Political
- During the modern era, China was in its last dynasty, the Qing. The Qing rulers were resented by many ethnic Han Chinese as foreigners since they were nomads from Manchuria. The Manchus easily adopted Chinese ways in order to somewhat alleviate Chinese resistance to foreign rule. They built their bureaucracy based on Chinese structure and held Chinese court ceremonies. They also added many Confucian rituals to the court calendar. The Qing dynasty continued to support the power of the scholar-officials, and even granted amnesty to those who had resisted its conquest.
- Even though the Manchus maintained many of the former Ming traditions, they participated much more actively than the Ming had in appointing local officials. They also reduced the tax exemptions and privileges given to these officials. Manchus (who made up less than two percent of the total population) disproportionately occupied the highest posts in the bureaucracy while the Chinese officials ruled at the regional and local levels. However, talented Chinese officials could also rise to occupy important posts. Under the Qing dynasty, the examination system was revived. The Manchus learned the Chinese classics and continued the traditional Mandate of Heaven. The emperors of the Qing claimed to be the Sons of Heaven. They were also great patrons of Chinese art and education.
- The Manchu army was organized into banner armies. These armies were the combined cavalry of each tribe and were also extremely cohesive fighting units. They were called banner armies because of the flags that each carried.
- The Manchus had been able to seize control in China not due to their own strength, but due to the declining of the Ming dynasty. After the Manchus had conquered China, they utilized the nomadic peoples to exact tribute from Vietnam, Burma, and other tributary kingdoms.
- By the late 18th century, the Qing dynasty was in decline. The bureaucracy was riddled with corruption and cheating and favoritism overruled the examination system. Wealthy families could buy government positions for brothers or sons. Talented but poor scholars were bribed into taking the exam for unqualified candidates of higher status. Examiners could also be bought off if a student was caught cheating. Because so many of the people who were incorporated into the bureaucracy had no knowledge of the Confucian classics, they were unaware of their responsibility to administer rule to the people. Corrupt officials used their positions to enhance their families' wealth and influence.
- The Opium Wars between China and Britain reversed the trade balance in the favor of the British. China increasingly grew dependent on Britain and was incorporated into its informal empire as a semi-colony.
Economy
- Chinese scholar-officials found many profitable jobs in the growing barbarian states beyond the Great Wall. Most of the new Manchu commoners remained nomadic herders, but many also became sedentary farmers.
- The Qing dynasty took measures to relieve the rural distress and unrest that had intensified near the end of the Ming dynasty. Taxes and state labor demands were lowered; tax-free tenures were offered to peasants who resettled land that had been abandoned or destroyed; and up to 10 percent of the imperial budget was spent on repairing and extending dikes, canals, and roads. Peasants planted new crops that were in demand, and even grew more than one crop every year. As in previous dynasties, the Qing tried to prevent the landed aristocracy from gaining too much influence and power.
- However, due to the increasing population and decreasing amount of arable land, these reforms were largely unsuccessful. Landlords accrued more land by calling in loans to peasants or buying them out. A surplus of workers gave tenants less sway in dealings with landlords. If they disagreed with the agreements imposed by the landlords, they were thrown off the land and replaced by others who were willing to accept less.
- China experienced commercial and urban growth over which the Manchus had no control. Regional diversification in crops and new ways to finance agricultural and artisan production were practiced. China still received large amounts of silver in the earlier years of the Qing dynasty from its tea, porcelain, and silk exports. Foreign merchants actively participated in the trade in Canton, and restrictions on overseas trade were abolished, allowing Chinese merchants to make large profits from oversea trade. This trade created the compradors, a group of wealthy merchants involved in imports and exports on the southern coast.
- In the 18th century, due to the corruption of the bureaucracy, state funds were taken and given to the families of the officials instead. This left insufficient resources to maintain the army, fleets, and public works projects.
- In the 19th century, the British found an alternative to silver that would allow them to trade with China - opium. This reversed the balance of trade in the favor the British as large amounts of silver left China in exchange for opium. After realizing the threat that the opium trade posed to the empire, China attempted to stop the trade. However, the British responded through military action to keep the trade open with China. Two Opium Wars occurred, both ending in defeat and unequal treaties for the Qing dynasty.
Religion
- Confucianism continued to have an important impact on life. The Manchus promoted Confucian rituals in court.
- As the dynastic cycle ended with the demise of the Qing dynasty, so did the long-dominant Confucian traditions. Confucian values continued to have some influence, but it suffered a huge blow and was relegated to a position of much lower significance.
- In Japan, Shintoism became the official state cult (it was not considered a religion) after the Meiji Restoration. Shinto translates to "the way of kami", or mystical, superior, or divine. Many shrines were reconstructed from previous shrines from the 9th century or earlier. Toriis were always placed in front of shrines to divide sacred precincts from adjacent areas. A pair of sacred animals called komainu (Korean dogs) or karajishi (Chinese lions) were placed in front of shrines to protect them from evil and defilement. Gagaku was music meant to entertain the kami. It literally translates to "elegant music" and consisted of vocal and instrumental music, especially for winds, percussion, and strings. Bugaku is a dance with gagaku (look below for an example of bugaku).
Society
- The Manchus preserved much of Chinese society. Respect for people of higher ranks and the acceptance of hierarchy continued to be valued. Relationships such as old over young, male over female, and scholar-bureaucrat over commoner were perpetuated. Among the upper classes, the extended family continued to be the core unit of social organization. Any other social organizations, such as guilds or secret societies, came under the suspicion of the state. Women's role remained confined to the household. Familial pressures combined with the state contributed to elder male dominance. Grooms chose brides who were slightly lower in social status as a way to reinforce their position over women. Parents still preferred to have sons over daughters since daughters would leave the household after marriage, which also required substantial dowries. There is also some questionable evidence that suggests female infanticide may have increased during the Qing dynasty. Males greatly outnumbered females.
- Outside of family relations, males still dominated over females. Women from the lower classes worked in fields and sold produce in the local markets. The most a married woman could expect was a strong backing from the men in her family and that she was the first wife and not a concubine. If women bore healthy sons, they could eventually run the household. In the upper classes, women had even less freedom. Widows were not allowed to remarry because it would be a strain on the family's resources.
- The landed gentry continued to be in a position of dominance over peasants. The gap between the rural landowners and peasants grew. The rural rich were carried in sedan chairs, wore expensive silks and furs, and had social gatherings with their peers. The men grew out their fingernails as a sign that showed they did not have to engage in manual labor.
- By the 18th century, however, the bureaucracy and examination system came to be run by corruption. The sons of the wealthy rural and merchant classes dominated official positions, while peasants and the urban poor did not have a chance to rise through the bureaucracy.
- The Taiping rebellion during the 1850s and 60s, led by Hong Xiuquan, aimed at reforms for land redistribution and liberation of women. It attacked the authority of the Confucian elite, smashing ancestral shrines.
Innovations
- The Qing dynasty revived the examination system and its rulers became educated in the Chinese classics.
- Because of the threat posed by modernized western countries, China launched a program of defensive modernization. These "self-strengthening" reforms advocated selective borrowing from the West. A few industrial factories, such as textile and steel factories, were established. Coal mines expanded and a telegraph system was established. Dikes were repaired and irrigation restored farms. The Chinese also adopted Western weapons, admitting that European weapons were superior to Chinese weapons. A few modern arsenals, shipyards, and foreign-language schools were created in an attempt to modernize. However, the failure of this program could be seen in the Boxer uprising.
- Japan experienced its own industrial revolution. By the 1880s, model shipyards, arsenals, and factories brought the Japanese people into contact with new technology. Cotton and textile mills were established. The success of an industrial revolution eventually allowed Japan to defeat a major power in the Russo-Japanese war, which made the rest of the world welcome it as a Great Power. It became an imperialist country.
Arts and Architecture
- The Manchus were great patrons of Chinese art, especially Kangxi and Qianlong. Most Qing architecture was to maintain or repair the palaces or important buildings in the Forbidden City. Although these designs did not deviate much from those of previous Chinese dynasties, they tended to be more detailed and brightly colored. Many summer palaces were also built for the Manchu emperors as a respite from the summer heat. Many Buddhist temples were also built; these displayed Sino-Tibetan styles that reflected the influence of Tibetan Buddhism.
- However, even more than in palaces and other institutional buildings, Qing architecture focused on gardens. Like the palace designs, the gardens were very ornate. One feature of these gardens was a central pond that represented the yin and rocky structures that represented the yang and reflected the admiration of mountains.
Near Geographic
- Except for the Tang dynasty, the Qing dynasty ruled over the largest territory than any of the previous dynasties.
- Because corrupt officials diverted state funds among their own families, public works were abandoned. On the Yellow River, the silting of the bottom and the construction of dikes caused it to rise above populated farmlands. When the maintenance of these dikes was abandoned due to insufficient funding, floods destroyed much of northeastern China. This catastrophe was most noticeable in the Shandong peninsula, which had previously where the Yellow River emptied into the sea. The land, livestock, and farms were wiped out, causing thousands of deaths from famine and disease.
Sources
- http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Qing_Dynasty_1820.png
- http://static.newworldencyclopedia.org/thumb/5/59/Portrait_of_the_Qianlong_Emperor_in_Court_Dress.jpg/240px-Portrait_of_the_Qianlong_Emperor_in_Court_Dress.jpg
- http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/719162/Chinese-architecture/283459/The-Qing-dynasty-1644-191112
- http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Naval_battle_between_Taiping-Qing_on_Yangtze.jpg
- http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/opium_wars_01/image/1833-39_map_OpTrade_2581769.gif
- http://webspace.ship.edu/jkskaf/Mod.%20China/6OpiumSales-China.gif
- http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/multimedia/dynamic/00200/opium_200225k.jpg
- http://wa1.www.unesco.org/ext/field/beijing/whc/439c.jpg;pv3918013de6c5d5df
- http://www.visitourchina.com/images/fileUpload/110426162116250.jpg
- http://lifetoreset.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/pc117000.jpg
- http://asaikarate.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Koma-inu1.jpghttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/540856/Shinto
- Stearns, Peter N. World Civilizations: The Global Experience. Advanced Placement ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2003. Print.
- Strayer, Robert. Ways of the World. 2nd ed. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2013. Print.