East Asia (China) PERSIAN Chart
(Classical)
by Unice Yoo
Political
- The Zhou dynasty (1029-258 BCE) did not establish a strong government, but relied on feudalism since it could not directly oversee everything. This system featured loyal alliances between the rulers and close family or other members, to whom the rulers gave land. The landlord-vassals were expected to contribute to the government with providing troops and tax revenues. Since this system was wholly dependent on the loyalties between king and vassal, it was easily susceptible to failure as many disloyalties appeared. Eventually, the landowning aristocracy solidified its power and ignored the government. However, it was during this period that the Mandate of Heaven originated. The Mandate of Heaven states that heaven appointed the emperor to rule China. The emperors were therefore also known as the Sons of Heaven.
- Following the decline of the Zhou dynasty, the Era of the Warring States (402-201 BCE) ensued.
- However, China was unified again under a one-ruler dynasty: the Qin. Qin Shih Huangdi appointed himself the emperor of China. He was a brutal leader, but he was successful in reuniting China. He realized that the problems that had arisen under Zhou rule stemmed from the power of the landowning aristocrats and worked to eliminate them. Shih Huangdi organized China into large provinces that were ruled by bureaucrats that he himself appointed and created a law code and tax system. These officials then appointed other officials to oversee the smaller regions. The centralization was also aided by the specialized roles. Some officials dealt with finance, some with justice, and others with the military. The emperor also created the first national census, which provided the necessary information to calculate tax revenues and labor service. He was very unpopular among his people for his attacks on scholars and intellectuals as well as the high taxes he imposed to support military expansion and the building of the Great Wall. When he died in 210, the peasants revolted. One peasant leader defeated all others and subsequently established the last classical Chinese dynasty in 202 BCE: the Han.
- The Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) had a centralized government like its predecessor, but lessened the brutality of Shih Huangdi's rule (although he did continue the elimination of the landed aristocrats). The most familiar emperor, Wu Ti, enforced peace throughout the country, bringing further prosperity. Under Han rule, China's bureaucracy was expanded. It had amassed 130,000 bureaucrats by the end of the Han dynasty. Wu Ti also implemented civil service examinations for scholar-bureaucrats. However, it was ended by the nomadic Hun invasions. From 220 to 589 CE, China was once again in a state of confusion and disorder, the end of the classical period in China.
- China exhibited a strict law code, enforced by torture and execution. Taxation and labor was required, and this fell especially heavily on the peasantry. Legalism in the Qin dynasty stressed an authoritarian state ruled by force. By nature, humans were evil and needed to be controlled and disciplined.
Economy
- The common linguistic base implemented by the Zhou contributed to the development of a common currency.
- Under the Qin dynasty, the government standardized weights, coins, and measures. It also promoted agriculture, sponsored irrigation projects, and encourage manufacturing, especially of silk.
- The government organized the production of iron and salt. The Han government attempted to control agricultural products by storing grain and rice to control price increases in case there was a year of bad harvest.
- Trade was based on luxury goods for the upper classes. Artisans produced silks, jewelry, leather goods, and furniture. In addition to luxury goods, staples such as rice and wheat were traded in the agricultural regions. Copper coins were made, and even facilitated trade with India.
Religion
- The Zhou dynasty banished the practice of human sacrifice and supported more restrained ceremonies to worship the gods. The rulers of the Zhou did believe in deities, but they did not address the nature of the deity. They stresses harmony, a proper balance between heaven and earth. This harmony was achieved through rituals to unify society.
- Confucius stressed political virtue and good government. A stable political life could be achieved through personal virtue and respecting traditions. He created a family hierarchy, but expected the rulers and the subjects to treat each other with mutual respect. The advent of Confucianism discredited the earlier worship of mysterious deities. It was a secular religion that guided people on how to lead stable lives. However, because it lacked any mysteries or spirituality, peasants still worshiped deities in nature.
- Many shrines were even built to worship Confucius under Wu Ti.
- Daoism was the alternative to Confucianism. It initially only appealed to the upper classes, who expressed interest in more spirituality. It emphasized harmony in nature and included some mystery in nature. It was founded by Lao-zi, who described the Dao as the way of nature. Harmony with nature was often the result of frugality and humility. In contrast to Confucianism, it disregarded political life as irrelevant to a good life.
- Ancestor veneration
Society
- Strong local units and tightly knit patriarchal families solidified economic and social views and political life.
- Individual families linked through extended family networks including brothers, uncles, and grandparents
- Primogeniture- the oldest son inherits all property and position
- Among ordinary people, village authority surpassed ancestor worship
- Although most were from nobility or of high birth, men from the lower classes in society could become scholar-bureaucrats on their own merit.
- Confucianism created a family hierarchy, with fathers and husbands as the heads of the family. Wives, mothers, and sisters were below husbands, fathers, and brothers. Children were expected to respect their parents. In fact, the law did not punish any parents for injuring or killing their children, but children would be severely punished if they disrespected their parents. Confucius believed that temperate behavior, the upkeep of traditions, and the love of wisdom should be characteristic of a good leader. In theory, anybody could rise through the ranks of society on personal merit. Confucius wanted education to be available to all members of society, including the lower classes.
- Chopsticks were used to eat instead of hands, which emphasized crudeness.
- The upper class controlled large landed estates, and the masses were composed of farmer-peasants. Literacy was the largest aspect that showed the disparity between the classes. The wealthy landowners therefore experienced more culture. The peasants depended on cooperation, especially in the southern rice-growing regions, where land was owned by a village or extended family rather than one person. Even lower than the peasants were the "mean" people, who performed unskilled duties. Status was usually inherited, but in rare cases, a few talented individuals could become scholars.
- China consisted of three main social groups. At the top were the landowning aristocrats and the scholar-bureaucrats (Mandarins), followed by the peasant farmers and artisans. At the bottom were the mean people, who received harsher treatment by the law.
Innovations
- The Zhou dynasty promoted linguistic unity, resulting in the universal use of Mandarin Chinese in China. This allowed oral traditions to be written down, and helped develop a common currency.
- During the decline of the Zhou dynasty, scholars attempted to use philosophical ideas to mediate the political confusion. One scholar, known as Confucius, wrote about political ethics. His ideas provided China with a strong, distinctive tradition and became a central part of Chinese culture. However, they would not come to light until after the Qin dynasty, which burned and destroyed many books.
- The Qin dynasty standardized the written Chinese language so that all literate Chinese could communicate.
- Under the Han dynasty, the government was linked to formal training related to the teachings of Confucius. Wu Ti supported Confucianism, unlike Shih Huangdi. He also established the civil service examinations, covering Chinese literature, and law. These included the Five Classics and Confucian writings. He began schools to train men for these tests.
- The Analects of Confucius contained his doctrines and was incorporated into civil service examinations.
- The government organized research in astronomy and kept historical records. Astronomers developed an accurate calendar, calculated the movements of Saturn and Jupiter, and observed sunspots. They aimed to make accurate predictions of the movements of celestial bodies.
- A type of seismograph to read earthquakes was developed during the Han dynasty.
- Scientists also studied medicine and anatomy to promote hygiene that could increase life expectancy.
- Mathematics also took a practical approach. The studies done in the mathematics of music led to acoustics.
- Ox-drawn plows, new collar for draft animals to prevent choking, pulleys and winding gear used in mining, advanced production methods in textiles and pottery, water-powered mills, paper
Arts and Architecture
- The First Emperor built the Great Wall of China to keep out barbarian invasions. It was over 3000 miles long and wide enough for chariots to move along its crest. It was built by slaves from the peasantry.
- Under Wu Ti in Han China, many shrines were constructed to worship Confucius as a god.
- Chinese art was decorative, with careful attention to detail and craftsmanship. It reflected the precision and geometric qualities of Chinese characters.
- Calligraphy
- Bronze and pottery, carved jade and ivory, and woven silk
- Imperial palaces and tombs, such as Shih Huandi's tomb and his terra cotta army
Near Geographic
- The Zhou dynasty included the Yangtze River valley, which stretched from the Huang He river to the Yangtze. This "Middle Kingdom" had rich land suitable for agriculture. Wheat grew in the north, and rice grew in the south.
- Under the rule of Qin Shih Huangdi, China was organized into large provinces. He extended China's domain southward, up to present-day Hong Kong.
- The Han dynasty further extended China into Korea, Indochina, and central Asia.
Sources
Stearns, Peter N. World Civilizations: The Global Experience. Advanced Placement ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2003. Print.
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http://www.terracotta-warriors.com/images/uploads/terra-cotta-army-pictures/terracotta-warriors-065.jpg
http://iammodernman.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/ancient_chinese_jade_pendant.jpg
http://asiasociety.org/files/calligraphy.jpg
http://www.nationsonline.org/maps/chinese_dynasty_maps/Zhou_Dynasty_Map.jpg
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